 |
An exploratory study of Organizational Learning, Knowledge Management and globalization strategy in NPO: the Buddhist Compassion Relief Tzu Chi Foundation
一個探索性研究之組織學習，知識管理及全球化策略在非營利組織NPO：以佛教慈濟基金會為例
陳德富
博士候選人
國立南澳大利亞大學 國際管理研究所
博士班
Enterprise how to win in the complicated and changing era, depending on
"learning faster than your competitors".The distinctive represent of
Tzu Chi relief action in 921 Taiwan big earthquake. Under short time to reach
distressed area and its surprised mobilization speed. Efficient job's location
and material distribution all made deeply image of Tzu Chi by people, therefore,
the study will examine Tzu Chi is a learning organization or not and To compare
Tzu Chi foundation's feature and trend of organization learning. To understand
the learning interaction of learning organization theory and Tzu chi members by
observe and interview, and how to form a loop of individual learning to
organizational learning re-feedback to individual learning, it's a cyclic
learning.
The study adopt exploratory to discuss representation situation of
learning organization of Tzu Chi. It used literature review, directly observe,
deeply interview and analysis of secondary data collection, found 1.Tzu Chi is a
learning organization, from Senge (1994) thinking structure, analysis of both
organization system and learning system, Tzu Chi members own complete learning
spirits. Organization structure design for help maintain of learning spirits.
Due to learning spirits, it can sustained make organization transfer better
organization of knowledge collect, manage and applied to reach both successful
of double win of Tzu Chi and its members. These jobs are so called
"Knowledge Management (KM)". KM has most regard for the key issue of
enterprises in 21 century. Because KM can increase enterprise's competitive
advantage, Therefore, how to find knowledge, storage knowledge and apply
knowledge already to be modern enterprises key factors of win. Then KM is not
just high technology enterprises must have regard for it, even the None profit
organization (NPO) also need consider the issues of KM. Because knowledge can
make an effective succession or not, apply and storage, all are the important
key of organization can keep core competence.
The study examined mainly Organization learning, knowledge management and
globalization strategy of Tzu Chi foundation. To find out the learning abilities
and core competence of Tzu Chi, and they can apply to help enterprise to
increase competitive advantage and help government to be more efficient and
effective.
Moving into the 21 century, in the change fast era, enterprises face more
strongly competitive and threat. "Learning" is just the beginning of
the knowledge cumulating and innovation. Therefore, enterprise how to win in the
complicated and changing era, depending on "learning faster than your
competitors".
Organizational learning includes abstractive, learning phenomenon, which
is hard to catch very complicated behavior and interaction relation of inside of
organization. The distinctive represent of Tzu Chi relief action in 921 Taiwan
big earthquake. Under short time to reach distressed area and its surprised
mobilization speed. Efficient job's location and material distribution all made
deeply image of Tzu Chi by people, therefore, the study will examine Tzu Chi is
a learning organization or not and To compare Tzu Chi foundation's feature and
trend of organization learning. To understand the learning interaction of
learning organization theory and Tzu chi members by observe and interview, and
how to form a loop of individual learning to organizational learning re-feedback
to individual learning, it's a cyclic learning.
The study adopt exploratory to discuss representation situation of
learning organization of Tzu Chi. It used literature review, directly observe,
deeply interview and analysis of secondary data collection, found 1.Tzu Chi is a
learning organization, from Senge (1994) thinking structure, analysis of both
organization system and learning system, Tzu Chi members own complete learning
spirits. Organization structure design for help maintain of learning spirits.
Due to learning spirits, it can sustained make organization transfer better
organization of knowledge collect, manage and applied to reach both successful
of double win of Tzu Chi and its members. These jobs are so called
"Knowledge Management (KM)".
KM has most regard for the key issue of enterprises in 21 century.
Because KM can increase enterprise's competitive advantage, Therefore, how to
find knowledge, storage knowledge and apply knowledge already to be modern
enterprises key factors of win. Then KM is not just high technology enterprises
must have regard for it, even the None profit organization (NPO) also need
consider the issues of KM. Because knowledge can make an effective succession or
not, apply and storage, all are the important key of organization can keep core
competence.
Although the OL and KM are very important to modern firms, but less of
formal research papers for the literature review and reference data, therefore,
I have a strongly interesting to study on the field of LO and KM in NPO.
Especially, research on Tzu Chi case study. Because On the strength of OL and
KM, Tzu Chi from 30 members became 500 millions members in worldwide. It
implements diversity strategy first in Taiwan. Includes charity, medicine (free
clinic), culture and education four big "volunteer businesses". At the
same time, Tzu Chi also plunges into bone marrow registry, international relief,
environmental protection, and community service. After they growing up, they
implement globalization strategy over the world. Expanding Tzu Chi compassion
and relief business for more poor people and suffer people who need help.
According above all, I have a strongly interesting to explore some issues
below: Why a NPO organization like Tzu Chi can develop so quickly to a
globalization organization? How can they do the relief activity faster than
government, Especially in 921 big earthquake of Taiwan? What is the organization
ability of Tzu Chi? Its organization learning and KM have concerned its
organization change and strategic change? How can Tzu Chi become a globalization
NPO? What is its diversity and globalization strategy? Because less of exists
papers to research in this kind of case study. Therefore, I would like trying to
explore the OL, KM and globalization strategy in NPO. Wish I can find out the
KSF of Tzu Chi foundation and make some contributions for the NPO and
enterprises, even for government to find a good approach to improvement their
efficiency and effectiveness.
1.2
Objective of study
The study examined mainly Organization learning, knowledge management and
globalization strategy of Tzu Chi foundation. To find out the learning abilities
and core competence of Tzu Chi, and they can apply to help enterprise to
increase competitive advantage and help government to be more efficient and
effective.
1.3
Summary
None Profit Organizations can synthesis identify as "A organization
that own legal personal qualification, for the mission of public service, enjoy
free of duty, their objective isn't for profits. NO distributions to internal
members for organizational payoffs also own independent of civil properties
organization" (Gian ming Shou, 1994).
(1) NPO Possess the
mission of public service.
(2) NPO must
register in government, and accept relative domination of laws and
regulations.
(3) NPO must is a
none profits or compassion mechanism.
(4) NPO managerial
structure is must eliminate private benefits or obtain of effects.
(5) NPO can enjoy
free of duty of handsome treatment for it's management.
(6) Enjoying a
special position of law, donations of contributors or patronage can
needlessly list range of free (abate) tax.
Hall assume NPO should be three goals:
(1) Executing
government consignment public affairs.
(2) Executing
government or unwilling or can't finish affairs of profits organizations.
(3) Impact on
nation profits departments or other NPO orientation of policy.
NPO management is not depend on "motivation of profit" driven,
but depend on coherence and leading of "mission". Through reflective
social need "mission" to gain all round people to advocate and
support; Durcker said: "the objective of donation is support NPO to
smoothly realize self-missions, but not put the mission under the donation"
(Peter F. Drucker, 1994).
2.2 Volunteer
The definition of
volunteers
Ellis and Noyes (1990) in their co-writing "By the People",
defined the volunteers, assume volunteers is with responsibility for the society
attitude, but not for caring about money and benefits. To appear personal need
and select action, the comportment is far over personal basic duty.
U.S.A countrywide
volunteers union said: A group of people for chase public benefits, with
self-willing and choice to be linkup together, they are so called volunteer
community. The workers who join this kind of community are volunteers. Its scope
is very wide, includes economic, society, education, religion, even political
activities (Tsai han-hsien, 1990).
Volunteers
of Tzu Chi organization
The definition of volunteer in Tzu Chi is the people who are volunteering
to engage in the service jobs, and as the service jobs his/ her desire. The
volunteers of Tzu Chi cover a lot of ground, include community volunteers,
environment protection volunteers, publicity volunteers, interview volunteers,
hospital volunteers, video volunteers, cleaning volunteers, translation
volunteers, referring volunteers etc. Then the component backbone of Tzu Chi:
committeemen and Tzu Chi officer worker teams themselves are volunteers, too.
For help more worldwide people who need help, Tzu Chi in adds
"international help volunteers", to distribute more seeds, to make
more place germination.
2.3 Foundations
The term of foundation, according the definition of USA foundation
manual: "Foundation is a none government, none profit organization, they
have themselves fund, especially manage by trustees or directors, to maintain or
help education, society, compassion, and religion, etc public service objective,
and a commonweal organization that provide complement money." (Margolin,
1991).
Although the concept of the learning organization emerged from the world
of business and industry, in recent years a strong increase in interest can be
detected in publications dealing with the non-profit sector (Cousins, 1996;
Leithwood and Louis, 1998). To find out how the concept of the learning
organization can be translated to NPO. We modified from the study: "Dutch
primary schools and the concept of the learning organization"( Sjoerd
Karsten, Eva Voncken and Marjon Voorthuis, 2000) in the field on four issues:
factors that stimulate organizational learning in NPO, conditions outside the
NPO, conditions within the NPO and the nature of learning and learning outcomes.
The experts had to meet all of the
following criteria in order to be eligible for our sample:
(1)
Knowledge of the concept of the learning organization as demonstrated by one's
writing or other public manifestations (e.g. lectures);
(2)
Leadership in innovation theory and practice as demonstrated through public
addresses, and one's level of esteem amongst peers;
(3)
Policy or practical orientation as demonstrated by one's ability to envision
opportunities for NPO improvement and one's level of esteem amongst NPO leaders
and members.
Learning
organizations promote a culture of learning and ensure that individual learning
enriches and enhances the organization as a whole (Sjoerd Karsten, Eva Voncken,
Marjon Voorthuis, 2000)
External conditions for organizational
learning in organizations
What conditions outside the organizations have a direct or indirect
influence on the learning of organizations? External conditions include the
influence of the government, the immediate surrounding environment (clients) and
also the relationship with external consultants. Some authors (Cousins, 1996;
Rait, 1995) have named changes in the immediate surrounding environment as an
important source of the development of learning organizations. The fact that the
environment surrounding an organization is changing all the time places demands
on the learning capacity of the organization. These changes may be
"planned" (such as government policies on deregulation and increased
autonomy), or "spontaneous" (e.g. Increasing violence in and out
organizations).
Nature of organizational learning and
learning outcomes in organizations
The fact that people, teams and whole organizations can learn is not in
dispute and the idea expressed in the concept of the learning organization, that
learning can produce important benefits for individuals and organizations, is
also widely accepted. However, as we have seen, there is sometimes less
agreement about what measures an organization needs to take to be able to learn.
The same can be said of how the outcomes of all that learning can be translated
into benefits for the organization.
Unfortunately,
there has been very little research in this area. The English business
administration expert, Denton (1998) decided to investigate whether there really
is a link between the capacity to learn and the success of an organization. From
studying a number of companies he concluded that it is quite likely that the
fact of being a learning organization has advantages, but that it is impossible
to measure the scale and range of those advantages in quantitative terms.
The major advantage of the concept of a learning organization for
organizations is, that it assumes an open and dynamic model of organization
improvement: open in the sense. The changes in the surrounding environment are
significant for the functioning of the organization and dynamic because it
assumes that organization, trainers and members can learn to deal with change
and that they can remove internal obstacles to improvement themselves.
What does this learning achieve? For some the greatest benefit comes from
being better able to deal with reform and innovation. A organization that is a
learning organization is better able to continue to modernize, which is
essential since so much has to be changed in organizations. Change has to come
from the community, the Master and the job itself. The dynamics of organizations
demand continual innovation and modernization. The learning organization model
is the only model, which can respond quickly to change and innovation.
Examples of learning organizations in
Tzu Chi organization
In order to gain some understanding of how Tzu Chi are developing into
learning organizations, we located one case to study in detail, interviewing the
external subscribers, organizational committeemen and members. The case study
varied in size (number of participating members), type of body providing
support, stage of development and central philosophy behind the project.
In-depth interviews with committeemen of foundation management teams, trainer
and the external subscribers were carried out to ask about:
·
Views about leadership
and organizational learning;
·
Experience with and
results of organizational learning;
·
Involvement of the
training team in the development process.
2.5 Quick Response strategy
The flexible organization
and QR strategy of Tzu Chi
How could Tzu Chi organization implement quick relief in 921 Taiwan big
earthquake? Even faster than Taiwan government and other relief communities. Tzu
Chi is mainly through by Volunteer strategy to implement QR (Quick Response)
strategy, when anywhere had happened disaster and whoever needs relief,
volunteers always reached the distressed area at the first time and deliver the
relief materials at the right time in right place. Besides, Tzu Chi also owns a
flexible organization, more quickly than general bureaucrat like government or
other relief organization. Here, for examine Tzu Chi QR strategy to collect some
literatures of QR as following:
What
is Quick Response？
QR launch in 1986, Started from USA, Implement by USA main super market
system (e.g. Wal-Mart, K-Mart) and Clothing manufacturer. They research how to
reduce cycle time from the process in manufacture, wholesale, retail until
consumer to reach "reduce stock cost", "increasing turnover"
and "reduce stock-out of retailer". More and more of the retailers for
increasing "business performance" to introduce QR, and follow
"improvement of technology", QR system increasing more new function.
According USA. Milliken company, Andy Vecchione (the chairman of QR
Planning) he defined: "QR (Quick Response) is a strategic of customer
oriented which make customer can get right product at right time, in right
place, under right price"(Andy Vecchione, 1988).
(1)
Information flow:
(2)
Goods flow:
(3)
Category management
From the beginning, committeeman is the main backbone of Tzu Chi
organization, during thirty-five years, follow Tzi chi committeemen, founded Tzu
Chi officer worker team, honor directors team organization, etc. the
characteristic of this kind of organization is mobile and agile. Its members
distribute in every layers of society, every corners, it's just like the
thousand hands and eyes of Bodhisattva, to develop the function of one hand
action equal thousand hands action.
Tzu Chi founded countrywide relief center in every corner, there are
service telephone, fax, medical station, relief coordination center with
government and military, relief center in temple and school, etc. whenever and
wherever disaster happened, Tzu Chi all can through these place to implement
relief action most quickly and effectively.
2.6 Knowledge management
Knowledge
in firms
Being the driver of much of the modern world, knowledge itself is
anything but easy to grasp. When knowledge becomes specialized, markets increase
in diversity, and make knowledge even further dispersed. Underlying cognitive
frames are being destroyed and undergoing constant change; those cognitive
frames, or categories, are critical to effective use of knowledge (Langlois,
1998), since knowledge, to be of value, has to be interpreted within some frame.
Thus, there can be little doubt that knowledge is the fundamental issue when we
talk about “technology"
and “organization"
(Kreiner, 1998). Technology is a kind of “knowing
how" –
a set of beliefs, routinized knowledge and artifacts (Garud and Rappa, 1994,
1995). Technologies manifest themselves as representers of knowledge (Garud and
Rappa, 1994, 1995; Rosenberg, 1982). Change, particularly technological change,
is equally important. But change only makes sense when compared to something
existing, something already present, and hence, relatively stable.
Tacit
knowledge and its management
The issue of tacit knowledge has been dealt with within many disciplines
and by many authors. Polanyi (1958), for example, sees tacit knowledge as a
personal form of knowledge, which individuals can only obtain from direct
experience in a given domain. Tacit knowledge is held in a non-verbal form, and
therefore, the holder cannot provide a useful verbal explanation to another
individual. Instead, tacit knowledge typically becomes embedded in, for example,
routines and cultures. Opposite to explicit knowledge, which can be expressed in
symbols and communicated to other individuals by use of these symbols (cf.
Schulz, 1998).
The emphasis on tacit knowledge is not novel to studies of organization (Kreiner,
1998). Indeed, it has been present since Adam Smith's (1776) famous argument
that division of labor made specialization of knowledge possible. Von Hayek
(1948a, b) later reminded us that the important knowledge was “the
knowledge of the particular circumstances of time and place" (Von Hayek,
1948b, p. 60) –
the tacit, subjective, idiosyncratic knowledge that individual actors hold. It
is precisely this kind of knowledge, which is important for understanding
organizational routines (Nelson and Winter, 1982).
The organization of
knowledge (e.g. in routines and artifacts) is matters of “beliefs"
(such as heuristics for search, cf. Nelson and Winter, 1982). Just as Von Hayek
emphasized that different individuals hold different bits of knowledge –
so do we hold different perceptions of this knowledge, and therefore, of
technology and organization. The cognitive processes by which knowledge is
created, distributed and shared thus become important to studies attempting to
deal with the organization of technological knowledge (cf. Garud and Rappa,
1994, 1995)
In the knowledge society access to new knowledge is a critical factor to
all firms. However, for firms there is not enough time to develop all knowledge
internally and thus, to acquire new knowledge firms and individuals depend on
knowledge networks. About this Powell (1998, p. 230) notes:
Firms
in technologically intensive fields rely on collaborative relationships to
access, survey and exploit emerging technological opportunities.
Knowledge networks may take the form of more or less loose cooperation
with other firms and individuals. In fact, it has been shown that loose and
informal networks among organizations may represent significant sources of new
knowledge (Kreiner and Schultz, 1993). Another string of research shows that the
network open to a firm is determined by its social position (Podolny, 1993),
implying that the reputation of a firm determines the opportunities open to it.
Taking this further it has been suggested that to develop a favorable social
position firms must demonstrate both social skills and technological knowledge
in cooperation with other organizations (Christiansen and Vendelø, 1998).
We regard knowledge networks as transmitters of knowledge among both
individuals and firms. In contrast to formal organization networks represent
loose couplings among the entities included. Such networks (technological ones)
are defined by Wright (1999, p. 296):
…
a technological learning network composed of people who are not necessarily
acquainted with each other personally, but who share a common technical language
and problem-solving environment.
Knowledge
Management interacts between technologies, techniques and people.
Knowledge management shapes the interaction pattern between technologies,
techniques, and people. For instance, IT can capture, store, and distribute
information quickly, but it has its limit on information interpretation.
Organizations which have been successful in obtaining long-term benefits from
knowledge management, are found to carefully coordinate their social relations
and technologies (Bhatt, 1998).
Technological
solutions can be captured and grafted. But to manage knowledge, organizations
need to construct an environment of participation, coordination, and knowledge
sharing. In general, implementing knowledge management programs requires a
change in organizational philosophy.
Strategy,
Structure and Culture
At the dawn of the twenty-first century which companies are not knowledge
based? Or the broader organizational view (offered by Albanna, 2000) that the
management of knowledge resources is essential to the ability of business
organizations to change, adapt, and seize new opportunities as they compete in
this fast changing global environment. Knowledge management is something which
needs to be considered by all organizations (include NPO) in their strategic
thinking and planning. It is equally important to ensure those all-available KM
avenues, applications and technologies are considered.
2.7 Globalization strategy
Globalization has been referred to as the most important concept
impacting on societies in the 1990's. Globalization is manifest in increasing
interconnectedness in many dimensions of life, cutting across national borders
and continental divides. It has been defined as: A social process in which the
constrains of geography on social and cultural arrangements recede and in which
people become increasingly aware that they are receding (Waters, 1995). Implicit
in this definition is the recognition by key players of the benefits of
technology in transport and communications. Geographic distance is no longer
considered such a difficult barrier to engaging in business at an international
level.
A more specific definition of globalization has been offered by an
Australian political thinker, who argues the globalization is an economic theory
designed to attain economic efficiencies through moving capital and technology
across territorial boundaries to take advantage of lower labor costs. This
definition captured the idea of transactions unimpeded by territorial
boundaries, a situation that has given rise to the now common terminology of
"a border-less world" (Ohmae, 1990) and "a global village".
Globalization is a process that results in a growing interdependency of
markets (Levitt, 1983). Increasingly it is resulting in the convergence of
economic and social forces, values, and opportunities. Globalization is
affecting competitive strategy and organizational structures. To increase
profits, cost downsizing and improve service quality and speed, improve
efficiency and effectiveness. To form standardize in quality, variety,
customization, convenience, time and innovation. These new demands for quality,
constant change and short life cycles are forcing new global partnerships and
alliances.
For example, Tzu Chi through global volunteers to help and relieve global
refugees and help distressed area to re-build their houses. It's the concept of
globalization, and Tzu Chi implement globalization action, is global thinking
but local action. The main approach is "take from local and use in
local", the worldwide donations integrated using by Tzu Chi headquarter,
but when any place need help, the worldwide local volunteers of Tzu Chi plunge
into relief activities immediately. The globalization development journey of Tzu
Chi is from the diversity strategy. First, they relieve people only in Taiwan,
Increasingly, expanding their relief business to be diversity. Finally, they
launch relief in abroad disaster and summon worldwide volunteers to join it.
Until now, Tzu Chi already owns over 500 million members over the world.
SSM (Soft Systems
Methodology)
Checkland submitted Soft Systems Methodology (SSM) in 1972, the main
contents are "Blocks and Arrows". In 1981, SSM was updated to
"Seven Stages", In 1988, SSM was updated to "Two Streams",
until 1990, it's more practice to form "Four Main Activities", the
four main activities are, however, capable of sharp definition:
1. Finding
out a problem situation, including culturally/ politically;
2. Formulating
some relevant purposeful activity models;
3. Debating
the situation, using the models, seeking from that debate both
(a)
changes which would
improve the situation and are regarded as both desirable and (culturally)
feasible, and
(b) the
accommodations between conflicting interests which will enable action-to-improve
to taken;
4. Taking
action in the situation to bring about improvement.
Figure 1 is the
methodology in summary (after Checkland. 1975)
Figure 1. The
methodology in summary (after Checkland. 1975)
Action
research
3.1.1
Collecting of Secondary data and literature
This is for stage
1: The problem situation: unstructured
3.1.2
Observation
Direct observation and participant observation of Tzu Chi activities.
This is a technique that has been adopted by management researchers from
cultural anthropologists. It involves the researcher in becoming part of or
integrated with the group or organization being studied - usually by becoming a
"proper" employee. It's a less structured approach but one that
produces good insights into, for example, behavior and relationship. The
participant usually remains unknown to the group as a researcher.
This is for stage
2: The problem situation: expressed
3.1.3
Interview
It is quite tempting to suppose the interview was first
"created" by the early observers who couldn't resist asking people why
the were doing what they were doing. Whatever its origin, the interview has a
fundamental role in management research. It allows for exploration and probing
in depth and, if the money and time are available, in breadth as well. The
questions asked might stem from periods of general observation - and this is to
be preferred to just dreaming up questions in the bath. Interview can be
unstructured and free-ranging, a general discussion, picking up points and
issues as they emerge and pursuing them in some depth; or they can be structured
around questions and issues determined in advance, based on theoretical
principles, pre-conceived ideas, or prior (exploratory) investigation.
I separate make
three interviews as following:
1.Interview with
members of Tzu Chi
3.Focused group
interview with volunteers of Tzu Chi: Focus Group Interview of Tzu Chi members
of branch office in Taiwan.
This is for stage
2. The problem situation: expressed and stage 3. Root definitions of relevant
systems.
3.1.4
Evaluation by triangulation
As Burgess (1984) pointed out, this term, taken literally, refers to
"three points of view within a triangle." However most writers use the
term in a far more general sense. In this study data triangulation was used, its
use in checking the consistency of findings from different data collection
methods and the consistency of different data sources within the same methods.
This is for stage 4. Conceptual models ((Formal system concept 4a and other
systems thinking 4b) and stage 5. comparison of 4 with 2.
Data analysis by
content analysis
This is for stage
6. Feasible, desirable changes
This is for stage
7. Action to improve the problem
3.3.1
Content analysis
Content analysis is a technique applied to a variety of forms of
communication. Berelson (1952) elicited six distinguishing characteristics: it
applies only to "social science generalizations", "syntactic and
semantic dimensions of language", and involves determining the effects of
communication. It must be "objective", systematic" and
"quantitative". The content analysis in this study used a clearly
defined set of categories, which will be described in detail later. The first
step is a statement of the problem to be studied, after which relevant sources
of communication are selected and, if applicable, a time frame for the study is
determined. If the volume of communication chosen is large, then sampling may be
appropriate (Krippendorff, 1980). In the study the volume of material was not
large and so all of the available material was analyzed.
Table
1. Categories of statements referring to Tzu Chi members
|
Learning
spirits and trend |
Management
knowledge |
|
Under
Master Cheng yen enlightening day by day, trust and cooperation by all
committeemen, members and volunteers, Tzu Chi members learn actively how
to help and relieve people and trend team or community learning. |
Organizational
learning Learning
Organization |
|
Information
and knowledge share |
QR
strategy and organization confluens strategy. |
|
According the main
assignment of QR: 1.Information flow 2.Goods flow 3.Category management. The
information and knowledge share in Tzu Chi are very smoothly, whether
through volunteers training, or Tzu Chi's various activities, and through
worldwide web of Tzu Chi. Members all could get full of information. |
The
information flow smoothly over the entire Tzu Chi organization is the main
factor to implement QR strategy in Tzu Chi relief activities. And through
the central belief and leadership of Master Cheng yen, all the members
through be a volunteer became organization syncretization. Increasingly
blend in one unity. |
|
Volunteer
strategy |
Organizational
learning and learning organization |
|
Tzu Chi community volunteer strategy is not only a significant
organization change but also a important strategy to be a learning
organization. Including community-member, community group learning and
even worldwide web, email e-newpaper, etc net learning. The central belief
of learning is “learning by doing”, just like what Master said:
““just do it”. |
The
KSF of OL and LO are information sharing and the supporting of high level
and the application of IT. The
most useful of OL is action learning, it is the same as learning by doing. |
|
CRM, Globalization, QR, www & IT, and organization confluens |
Knowledge
Management |
|
Tzu Chi’s rich information and various knowledge are from their
customers (members), through member’s feedback they can get various
information and found database to transfer it to useful knowledge |
Through
globalization Tzu Chi can get various information, experiences, skill,
etc. and to produce various knowledge, and by the application of IT, www,
QR, they can reach information and knowledge sharing and distribute
knowledge and apply interaction marketing. Finally, through organization
confluens they can beyond member relationship even partnership, became
like a family relationship, it is more helpful to transfer tacit knowledge
to explicit knowledge. |
|
Globalization
concept |
Globalization
strategy |
|
Master
Cheng Yen said compassion and relief activities are irrespective of
nationality, region, and tribe. All the Tzu Chi members with the concept
to prepel four big volunteering businesses over the world. |
1.
Information Globalization 2.
Relief Globalization 3.
Belief Globalization 4.
Volunteers Globalization 5.
Charity, education, medicine, culture four businesses Globalization |
Table
2. The coding used in content analysis
|
Statement |
Coding |
||
|
Learning
spirits and trend Information
and knowledge share Volunteer
strategy CRM, Globalization, QR, www & IT, and
organization confluens Globalization
concept and implement |
A
(after the ) B
(before the ) A
(after the ) A
(after the ) A
(after the ) |
trust
and cooperation learning
trend to team or community learning. Organization
change Organization
learning And
learning organization Knowledge
management Community
volunteer strategy and diversity Organization
confluent strategy |
P
(positive) N
(negative) P
(positive) P
(positive) P
(positive) |
This is for stage
7. Action to improve the problem
3.4
conceptual model
Figure
2. Conceptual model for the formation of Globalization in Tzu Chi organization
This is for stage
4. Conceptual model
3.5
Structure of the study
The study separate into seven parts, first part is introduction, second
part is literature review, third part is methodology, fourth part is
introduction of NPO and Tzu Chi foundation, fifth part is finding, sixth part is
construction of proposition, final part is conclusions and recommendations.
3.6
Limitation of the study
1. For the
considering of time and cost, the study can't get more samples.
2. Some of Tzu Chi
members have no willing to talk more deeply about Tzu Chi organization, so we
can get advance data of Tzu Chi by the interview.
According the experts had to meet all
of the following criteria in order to be eligible for Organizational learning
and learning organization of our sample:
(1)
Knowledge of the concept of the learning organization as demonstrated by one's
writing or other public manifestations (e.g. lectures);
(2)
Leadership in innovation theory and practice as demonstrated through public
addresses, and one's level of esteem amongst peers;
(3)
Policy or practical orientation as demonstrated by one's ability to envision
opportunities for NPO improvement and one's level of esteem amongst NPO leaders
and members.
The organizational learning of Tzu Chi foundation are mainly four parts:
1.committeemen-members learning 2.committeemen groups learning 3.volunteers
learning 4.Tzu Chi younger group learning. The interaction between members and
how to through individual learning to organizational learning are the key
problem of Tzu Chi's organization learning. And the good way is implement
double-loop learning between members. Tzu chi own integrated learning spirit,
and organization structure to impel spread learning spirit. But current stage of
Tzu Chi members, lack of system thinking, need enhance organizational learning.
The solution is introduction system thinking skills and found knowledge database
to transfer effectively from individual to community to organization. After
learning effectiveness of diffusion, Tzu Chi can provide its learning
experiences about organization change to learning organization and team
authority, etc skills to profits organization.
Learning
in doing
The Buddha's
teachings are not so difficult or profound. They are directions for our daily
lives. Therefore, grounded on the spirit of the Buddha and endeavoring to put
what he taught into practice in daily life. The Tzu Chi Foundation began by
doing charitable work and then gradually expanded its activities into the eight
fields of charity, medicine, education, culture, international relief, bone
marrow donation, environmental protection and community volunteerism. "We
learn from what we do and we do what we have learned." In this way, we
experience the meaning of the admonition, "Let the Buddha be in your heart,
the dharma in your words and love in your deeds." For over thirty years,
millions of people have enthusiastically responded and joined in the good work,
without complaint or regret. We deeply believe that in every heart there exists
priceless great love.
Despite
these general difficulties as noted by the experts, a number of lessons can be
drawn from our study of the case of Tzu Chi organization. The most essential
aspects for organization willing to become learning organizations are:
·
improving the
mechanisms for obtaining information from the local environment and selecting,
processing and distributing it within the organization;
·
getting a better idea
of the wishes of clients and stakeholders and relating this to the
organization's own strengths;
·
improving internal
communication and opportunities to exchange ideas and experiences;
·
cultivating interest
in new ideas and encouraging cooperation and innovation;
·
regularly
investigating obstacles to learning at all levels, not forgetting to discuss the
norms and values under-pinning the organization from time to time;
·
regularly reviewing
and taking stock of the learning experiences in the organization, making better
use of the various monitoring systems that often already exist.
4.2
Knowledge management
Why Tzu Chi organization could relief quick response in 921 Taiwan big
earthquake? How can Tzu Chi spirits deeply into Tzu Chi member's action? The
global relief experiences of Tzu Chi how to cumulate and apply effectively? The
knowledge management approach and the mode and of knowledge share, experiences
succession, knowledge storage and apply of Tzu Chi can provide other enterprises
and organization be reference.
Knowledge transfer, apply, and storage of NPO usually are here and there,
therefore Tzu Chi need systemic create knowledge database and transfer
effectively its experiences, knowledge to internal members and external
enterprise, government. But how can we to do it? The solution is Tzu Chi need
implement e-management to its wide and complicated knowledge. Just can form a
real and efficient knowledge management. And to help themselves and enterprises
to be more efficient and increase competitive advantage.
We found that overcoming cultural barriers to sharing knowledge has more
to do with how you design and implement your knowledge management effort than
with changing your culture. It involves balancing the visible and invisible
dimensions of culture, visibly demonstrating the importance of sharing knowledge
and building on the invisible core values.
The real task of knowledge management is to connect people to people to
enable them to share what expertise and knowledge they have at the moment, given
that cutting edge knowledge is always changing. Only by changing organizational
culture, can an organization gradually change the pattern of interaction between
people, technologies, and techniques, because the core-competencies of an
organization are entrenched deep into organizational practice.
For example, Tzu Chi through volunteer strategy and Cooperation strategy
to form a knowledge Network, learning organization, overcoming tribe and culture
barriers finally, they reach a globalization organization. Through
knowledge share, the organization operation of Tzu Chi is emergent a special way
called MRM of Tzu Chi. To the external benefactors, Tzu implement CRM (Customers
Relationship Management) to maintain Tzu Chi sustained operation, and implement
MRM (Member Relationship Management) to the internal members to develop and
thrive Tzu Chi organization. Not only maintain good relationships with them, but
also share and distribute information and knowledge to them, Tzu Chi already
from Learning Organization became to Knowledge Management, in addition, Tzu Chi
founded a knowledge networks to implement its various compassion and relief
activities.
Summaries
In general, organizations may use technologies or may take an informal
approach in knowledge management. But to sustain long-term competitive
advantage, a firm needs to create a fit between its technological and social
systems. Technologies can be used to increase the efficiency of the people and
enhance the information flow within the organization, while social systems such
as communities of practice improve on interpretations, by bringing multiple
views on the information.
Knowledge management is a comprehensive process of knowledge creation,
validation, presentation, distribution, transfer and application. The
coordination of these phases is critical; because short-circuiting any of the
above phases may result in less than optimum outcome of the knowledge
management.
If management is serious about making knowledge management as a priority
in the organization, it will require reconsidering and analyzing the balance
between technological and social facet of the organization. Putting too much
emphasis on people or technologies is not sufficient; rather, management must
revisit the interaction pattern between technologies, people, and the techniques
people employ in using these technologies.
Tzu Chi can tend to study how to link the gap of KM chain from creation,
distribution, transfer and application by the interaction between technologies,
techniques, and people. Besides over cultural barriers, the more important
things are how to eliminate the fetish of IT (Information Technology) and to
integrate people, knowledge and technology further. Then the KM system just can
be a complete and effective knowledge management and to help organization
increasing competitive advantage.
4.3
Globalization strategy
Tzu Chi organization is with global thinking and local action, respect
and understand local folk custom, religion, culture tradition. Helping people
with friendship position, and consider dignity of beneficiary. Whether clothes,
food, medicine or house, etc. all regard quality, take consider as it's use for
oneself, and with grateful heart give them the relief materials.
Tzu chi could take care all of the widest distressed area, therefore they
chose the most heavy or the most lack of external helping area, concentrating
limit resources on the most desired place, to develop the most function. So they
can implement global relief action.
4.3.1
Volunteer management strategy
Tzu Chi constitutes mainly by committeemen, members, volunteers, honor
director (for entrepreneurs), loving-kindness-honesty volunteer (for social
officer worker), loving-kindness-younger volunteer (for students). Committeeman
organization of every place re-organized by community. Due to each community
"committeeman group" in charge of Tzu Chi foundation affairs of each
community, "community volunteers" are the most important members of
Tzu Chi organization. In general time, they disperse everywhere, do themselves
jobs. But when Tzu Chi need them to help people, they concentrate by each
community as soon as they can. Tzu Chi implement training & education for
volunteers, the frequency is according their volunteering categories, Generally,
once training in one week for committeemen, other volunteers depend on their
properties to implement training.
The compassion and relief action of Tzu Chi volunteers are propounded
case by countrywide committeemen, members or demos, through committeeman of each
region to interview and comfort, debrief the results to headquarters or each
branch, after submit committee to deliberate, to help depend on need of case.
And trace and re-examine actually to practice in community.
4.3.2
Diversity strategy of Tzu Chi
Tzu Chi four big volunteering businesses make Tzu Chi from a pure
compassion and relief organization became diversity organization. Now, Tzu Chi
foundation includes charity, education, medicine, culture etc. beside, they also
mange satellite TV to preach up Tzu Chi belief and spirit. For example, Master
Cheng Yen believes that educational ideality, which tangible education is in
school but intangible education is in social community. The four big
volunteering businesses and eight big foot-print businesses of Tzu Chi are also
practice in community, expecting to enlighten every people's good sense and
ability, to reach the goal of people mind Purge. By right of life education to
cultivate moral character, upgrade personality and honor are the ideality of Tzu
Chi education.
In charity work, Tzu Chi provides material necessities, medical care and
spiritual consolation for the sick and elderly. Its not only help the poor, but
also educate the rich by showing them that giving and service are more
meaningful than pursuing wealth, power and prestige. It's grateful to both our
long-term care recipients and to disaster victims when Tzu Chi give them food,
clothing, care and companionship, for without their misfortune it would find no
opportunity to serve. The poor and wretched receive help, the rich and fortunate
activate their love, and thus both can be grateful to each other.
In order to show respect for all life, Tzu Chi has worked tirelessly to
establish a medical care network that includes two hospitals in Taiwan and a
system of mobile free clinics in many countries around the world. What is
special about our medical service is the attitude of the personnel. Tzu Chi
doctors and nurses are taught to treat patients as they would their own
relatives, and to heal them in both body and mind. They do not just treat the
symptoms of a disease, but they also consider how a patient's illness affects
his life and family.
In order to purify human minds, the importance of education must not be
overlooked. Tzu Chi teachers "treat all children with the hearts of parents
and treat their own children with the wisdom of bodhisattvas." In this way,
the love that they teach will truly sprout, grow and blossom. Great love
transcends all borders whenever disaster strikes, Tzu Chi people, like living
bodhisattvas, are the first to respond to calls for help.
4.3.3
Organization confluent strategy of Tzu Chi
The Tzu Chi Foundation is one of the largest charity organizations in
Taiwan, and now has offices in over twenty countries around the world. For over
thirty years, the organization has been working in the fields of charity,
medicine, education, culture, international relief, bone marrow donation,
environmental protection and community volunteerism. Almost all of the work is
done voluntarily by foundation members, who labor with an attitude of love and
gratitude towards all people. The "love and gratitude" are
organization confluent strategy of Tzu Chi. Tzu Chi members they hope that by
purifying people's minds and activating the love and compassion in their hearts,
they can build a world of peace. Therefore, through organization confluent
strategy, Tzu Chi fused together different regional and national people, tribe
and various color of race. Members are across worldwide five big continents
The Buddha said,
"All creatures share a common karma because we all receive the results of
our actions." When people have less and less respect for Mother Nature, she
will surely respond with endless calamities.
Great
love as the organization confluent factor
Why have people become too disrespectful towards each other to remember
what gratitude, contentment, good will and understanding are? The reason is that
there is not enough love, that there is no awakening of our innate universal
love. If we remember that all creatures in the universe are one, we will know
how to let go of our egotism, eliminate our mutual misunderstanding and put
aside our selfishness. We will then return to the true, clear essence of our
human nature, and from the depths of our hearts will arise a reverent love for
all beings. Everyone has great love.
Learning
in doing
The Buddha's teachings are not so difficult or profound. They are
directions for our daily lives. Therefore, grounded on the spirit of the Buddha
and endeavoring to put what he taught into practice in daily life. The Tzu Chi
Foundation began by doing charitable work and then gradually expanded its
activities into the eight fields of charity, medicine, education, culture,
international relief, bone marrow donation, environmental protection and
community volunteerism. "We learn from what we do and we do what we have
learned." In this way, we experience the meaning of the admonition,
"Let the Buddha be in your heart, the dharma in your words and love in your
deeds." For over thirty years, millions of people have enthusiastically
responded and joined in the good work, without complaint or regret. We deeply
believe that in every heart there exists priceless great love.
Great
mercy even to strangers and great compassion for all
Tzu Chi's international relief work shows the truth of the Buddha's
teaching that "All beings are equal." When you see with your own eyes
a family huddled on a small, tottering roof in the middle of a flood, waiting to
be rescued, do you care what their nationality is? At that moment, you only
think of how to save them from their suffering. This is the meaning of
"Great mercy even to strangers and great compassion for all." Tzu Chi
relief team members pay their own way to disaster areas to help distribute
relief supplies, grateful for the opportunity to help the suffering. Overcoming
obstacles of time, space and politics, the foundation has provided material and
medical relief to victims of war, flood and drought in such countries as
Mainland China, Cambodia, Thailand, Rwanda, Ethiopia, South Africa, Papua New
Guinea, Afghanistan and Kosovo. Tzu Chi has established the world's third
largest marrow donor registry, which has handled over one hundred marrow
transplants both in Taiwan and abroad.
4.3.4
CRM (MRM) of Tzu Chi
CRM (customer relationship management) became so popular in modern
corporate, its because whether you are whatever business, customer are your main
profit source, and profit is the life of corporate. No customer no business. The
same reason to NPO, even though profit is not the goal of NPO, but NPO also need
to get profits to sustain its operation. Insofar reasonable range, NPO need do
their best to maintain good relationships with their donors (customer) and
members. Tzu Chi used various approach in MRM (members relationship management)
as its CRM, for example, the committeemen utilize the chance of taking donation
money in each month, face-to-face to contact members and communicate feeling.
Besides, Tzu Chi through electronic newspapers to send various information to
members and to interact with worldwide members through worldwide web,
subscription of various published materials, satellite TV program and various
compassion and relief activities, etc
Directly
relief
Tzu Chi volunteers and professional people get into distressed area
deeply, lookup disaster situation, according refugees desire to scoop in
donation and relief materials, and mobilize volunteers according refugees manual
which by real examining and identification take relief materials to refugees
directly by hand. To express sincerely caring and wish to them.
Just
in time logistic support
According real situation of disaster happened, hold prescription to take
action of reconnoiter disaster, collect data, and finish evaluation under the
shortest time, get ready materials to help them as most quickly.
Actuality
To understand emergent need of distressed area really, providing the most
suitable help, it must doable, effective, quickly, make one relief to reach
multi-effects, don't make relief resources to be unprovoked waste.
After the analysis of collecting data and interview, we got some finding
as above. Due to the finding we integrate and develop it to some propositions as
following:
Proposition8:
The K.S.F. of Tzu Chi are strongly central belief of charity, global community
volunteer's strategy, Committeemen-members Organizational Learning abilities,
Knowledge Management network and globalization strategy.
Conclusions
After interviews, data collection and content analysis, I founded the
four big volunteering businesses of Tzu Chi organization tend to four trend as
following:
1. Charity
business tend to internationalization
It includes taking care of domestic poor family for a long-term, disaster
relief, family caring and administering relief to international, etc. Tzu Chi
people stand in Taiwan but see over the world with worldview. With great love
walk forward to global village. Wishing people have no disaster over the world.
2. Medicine
business tend to generalization
It includes local hospital, marrow database, children development and
recuperating center, free medical caring in mountainous area and islets, etc.
respect each unique life, Tzu Chi medical network make reassurance to every
families,
3. Education
business tend to completely development
Tzu chi education use love as Goshen, put a value on virtuous moral and
function coequally, include from kindergarten, elementary school, junior high
school, senior high school, university and graduate school, Tzu chi take to
heart to train up next generation.
4. Culture
business tend to depth development
Community
service, mechanism caring, environment protection, etc. Tzu Chi volunteers make
fresh ethos for peaceful society. From magazines, books, video, television, Tzu
Chi culture business make a pioneer for purging people mind.
Recommendations
1.
Unemployment relief volunteers business
Besides the four big volunteers businesses, Tzu Chi should increase
"unemployment relief" volunteer business. Because unemployment
problems is the most important and emergency problems in Taiwan now. Tzu Chi can
implement "job training" for those people who are unemployment. A
proverb said, "Instead of giving them fish you better teach them how to
fish". Tzu Chi could summon every kind of volunteer to do that training
job.
2.
Enhancing "knowledge database" to share more different religion and
tribal people.
For raising global competitive advantage of Tzu Chi, they should enhance
various kind of knowledge database to share more different religion and tribal
people. And to be the base of learning organization and knowledge management.
For example, many kind of relief experiences and compassion activities, 921
Taiwan big earthquake quick response of relief, etc. it also can reach knowledge
transfer function and goal. And knowledge transfer just is the most important
key factor of enterprise's sustained management.
3.
Knowledge transfer
Tzu Chi experiences and knowledge can be a mirror of government
organization and enterprises and help them to be more efficient and increase
competitive advantage through the Tzu Chi committeemen and members. The
experience of NPO to enterprise, when enterprise implement KM, they should
notice knowledge is form the interaction of tacit knowledge and explicit
knowledge. At he same time, enterprise also can authorize medium-level managers
to act the enabler of knowledge interaction and need aimed at different
"knowledge transfer approach" to adopt different "knowledge share
platform and mechanism", just can make inside of organization information
to be useful and clear knowledge. To reach efficacy of organization integrated
learning. After storage knowledge by document, Enterprise in the process of KM
also can't ignore found and apply of human storage mechanism.
4.
Enhancement e-management
The contents of Tzu Chi worldwide web almost are tendentious and
advertising. It's not enough to be a modern organization in 21 century,
especially in internet era, Tzu Chi should be enhance e-commerce function and
found intranet and extra-net to increase efficient and speed of organization
internal process management and decrease process management and communication
cost. To reach virtual organization benefits. Therefore, can increase central
force of internal members and volunteers of Tzu Chi and develop their
effectiveness. To construct sustained management substructure. Besides,
e-management can make the use of internal donation and expense more visible;
it's process management make members and external public more trust to Tzu Chi.
Then, whether whoever to be the future leader of Tzu Chi, it always can make a
well management system sustained forever.
5.
Introduction of management consulting
Tzu Chi can try normalization volunteers consultants of every
professional field, to help more levels of people and self-organization
development of Tzu Chi. It also can make more professional talents
participation.
6.
Leadership of cultivation
Leadership to an organization is most important, and we need think about
a good approach to maintain Tzu Chi sustained operation. First job is to
cultivate some leader of high-level and medium-level management department.
Besides, Tzu Chi need implement "alternation" system between members
(volunteers) and staffers. Then they can learn from each other and the system
can decrease some abuses of NPO.
Reference
Ablex,
Mcgill, M. E. & Slocum, J. W. (1993), "Unlearning The
Organization", Organizational Dynamic, 22(2), pp. 67-79.
Anthes
E., Cronin, J., & Jackson, M. (Eds.)(1985), "The nonprofit board book:
Strategies for organization success (revised ed.)", Hampton, Arkansas:
Independent Community Consultants, Inc.
Argyis,
C. (1991), "Teaching smart people how to learning", Harvard Business
Review, May-June, pp.99-109
Argyris,
C. & Schon, D. (1978), "Organizational learning: A theory of action
perspective, Reading", MA. Addison-Wesley Publishing Company
Argyris,
C. (1994), "On Organization Learning", Cambridge, Blackwell.
Argyris,
C. (1990), "Overcoming organizational defenses", Prentice-Hall,
Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
</PLOC>Argyris,
C. and Schön, D.A. (1978), "Organizational Learning: A Theory of
Action Perspective", Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA</PLOC>.
Armstrong,
M. (1992), "Human resource management: Strategy & Action", London:
Kogna Page.
Byars,
L. L., & Rue, L. W. (1991), "Human resource management (3rd ed)",
Homewood, Illinois: IRWIN.
Badaracco,J.
& Hamel (1991), "The Knowledge link", Boston, MA: Harvard Business
School Press.
Badelt
, C. (1990),“Institutional
Choice and the Nonprofit Sector" in
Blom,
S. (1990), “Naar
een lerende school”,
Mesomagazine, Vol. 11 No. 52 , pp. 2-7.
Bonora,
E. A. and Revang, O. (1991), "A Strategic for Analyzing Professional
Service Firms – Developing Strategic for Sustained Performance, Strategic
Management Society Inter-organizational Conference", Toronto, Canada.
Brain
O'connell Ann Brown O'connell (1988), "volunteers in action", The
Foundation center.
Breton,
M. (1985), "The Voluntary Sector in British Social Services", N. Y.:
Longman.
Breton,
Maria,(1985), "The Voluntary Section in British Social Services",
London: Longman.
Brudney,
J. L. (1991),“Volunteerism
in Public Administration", in J. L. Perry (ed.) Research in Public
Administration：A Research Annual. Greenwich, Connecticut: JAI
Press.
Brudney, J. L.
(1991), "Volunteerism in Public Administration, in J. L. Perry (ed.)
Research in Public Administration", A Research Annual, Greenwich,
Connecticut, JAI Press.
Byrne,
J. A. (1992),“Management's new gurus", Business Week, 3281,
Aug. pp. 44-45.
Calvert,
G., Mobley, S. & Marshall,L.(1994), "Grasping the learning
organization", Training and Development, 48(6), pp. 38-43.
Cascio,
W.F., (1992), "Managing Human Resources", Singapore: McGraw-Hill.
Cenzo,
O. A. & Robbins, S. T. (1994), "Human resource management: Concepts
& practices (4th ed.)", New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Chen
S.J. (1990), "Understanding the Buddhist Tzu-Chi Association: A Culture
Approach", Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation: University of Southern
California.
Cohen,
M.D. and Sproull, L.S. (1995), Organizational Learning, Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA</PLOC>.
Cohen-Raronthal,
E. (1994), "Organizational Learning and change in a public child welfare
agency", Administration in Social Work, 18(1), pp.1-19.
Commission
of Private Philanthropy and Public Needs (1975), "Giving in America: Toward
a stronger voluntary sector", Washington, D. C.: Author.
Cooper,
R. & Schindler, S. (1998), "Business Research Methods", N.Y.:
McGraw-Hill Inc.
Cousins,
J.B. (1996), "Understanding organizational learning for educational
leadership and school reform", in Leithwood, K. et al. (Eds), Handbook of
Educational Leadership and Administration, Kluwer, Dordrecht/Boston/London</PLOC>.
Cutcher-Gershenfeld
J. et al. (1998), "Knowledge-driven work: Unexpected lesson from Japanese
and United States work practices", Oxford, UK: Oxford
Daft
R. L., (1997), "Organization Theory and Design", New York: West
Publishing Company, Denhart, R., Theories of Public Organization, New York:
Wadsworth, Inc.
DuFour,
P. (1997), "The school as a learning organization: Recommendations for
school improvement", National Association Ellis
Denton,
J. (1998), "Organizational Learning and Effectiveness", Routledge,
London</PLOC>.
Drucker,
P. E. (1989b), "What business can learn form nonprofit?", Harvard
business Review, 89(4), 88-93.
Drucker,
P. E. (1990), "Managing the non-profit organization: Principles and
practices", New York: Harper Colins Publishers.
Edvinsson
L. and Sullivan M. S. (1996), "Intellectual Capital", New York:
HarperCollins Publishers, Inc.
Ellis, S. J. &
Noyes (1990)," K. K. by the People: A History of Americans as
Volunteers", (revised ed.),
San Francisco, Jossey-Bass, Publishers.
Eskildsen,
J. K., Dahlgaard, J. J. & Norgaard, A. (1999), "The impact of
creativity and learning on business excellence", Total Quality Management,
10(4/5), pp. S523-S530.
Fisher,
J. C., & cole, K.M. (1993), "Leadership and management of Volunteer
programs: A guide for volunteer administrators", San Francisco: Jossey-Bass
Publishers.
Fox,
Charles J., (1994), "The Use of Philosophy in Administrative Ethics",
in Terry L. Cooper(ed.),
Handbook of Administrative Ethics, NewYork
Fullan,
M.G. (1993), "Change Forces. Probing the Depths of Educational
Reform", Falmer Press, London/New York/Philadelphia</PLOC>.
Gaston,
N. (1989), "Easy does it: Initiating a performance evaluation process in a
existing volunteer program", Journal of Volunteer administration, 8(1),
27-30.
Gellatt,
J. P. (1992), "Managing nonprofit organizations in the 21st century",
Phoenix, Arizona: The Oryx Press.
Gian Min-sho
(1994), "The study of NPO leadership behavior ", Taipei, National
scientific committee research project.
Gidron,
B., Kramer, P. M., & Salamon (Eds.) (1992), "Government and the third
sector: Emerging relationship in welfare states", San Francisco: Jossey-Bass
Publishers.
Galbraith,
J. R. & E. E. Lawler Ⅲ
(1993), "Organizing for the future: The new logic for managing complex
organization", CA, Jossey-Bass
Galer,
G. & K. Ven der Heijden (1992), "The learning organization: How
planners create organizational learning", Marketing Intelligence and
Planning, 20(6) pp5-12
Garratt,
B. (1990), "An Old Idea that Has Come of Age", People
Management", 1(19), pp. 25-28.
Garvin,
D. A. (1993), "Building A Learning Organization", Harvard Business
Review, 71(4), pp. 78-91.
Gephart
M. A., Marsick V. J., Van Buren, M. E. & Spiro, M. S.(1996）, "Learning organizations come alive."
Training & Development, pp.35-45.
Gilbert,
Myrna & Gordey-Hayes, Martyn, (1996), "Understanding the Process of
Knowledge Transfer to Achieve Successful Technological Innovation",
Technovation, vol.16, No.6, Jun, pp.301-312.
Goh,
S. C. (1998), "Toward a Learning Organization: The Strategic Building
Blocks", Sam Advanced Management Journal, 63(2), pp.15- 22.
Guns,
B. (1996), "The faster learning organization: Gain and sustain the
competitive edge", San Francisco: Jossey Bass.
Hair,
J. F. (1992), Multivariate data analysis with readings, N.Y..
Hansmann
, H.(1980), "The Role of Nonprofit Enterprise" , 89 Yale L. J. 837,
pp.840
Hansmann
, H. (1987), "Economic Theories of Nonprofit Organization" In Powel ,
W.W. (ed.). The Nonprofit Sector: A Research Handbook. New Haven: Yale
University Press. Hsley, Paul J. (1990), "Enhancing the Volunteer
Experience.", Jossey-Bass, San Francisco.
Jame,
E. (1990), "Economic Theories of the Nonprofit Sector: A Comparative
Perspective" in Anheier H. K. and Seibel W. (eds.) The Third Sector:
Comparative Studies of Nonprofit Organizations. New York: Walter de.
Gruyter,
Jashapara, A. (1993), "The competitive learning organization: A guest for
holy grail.", Management Decision, 31(8) pp5-15.
Kidd,
J. R. (1973), "How adults learn, Revised end", Association Press, New
York: Harper Collins.
Kim,
D. H. (1993), "The link between individual and organizational
learning," Sloan Management Review, Fall, pp37-50
Kofman
F. & Senge, P. M., (1993), "Communities of commitment: The heart of
learning organization", Organizational Dynamics, pp5-17.
Kolb,
D. A. (1983), "Problem Management: Learning from experience in Sricastva
(Ed.) The executive mind", San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Kramer, Ralph M.,
Voluntary Agencies in the Welfare State, Los Angeles, CA: University of
California Press.
Leonard-Barton,
D. (1992), "The Factory as a Learning Laboratory", Sloan Management
Review, 34(1), pp.23-38.
Lessem,
R. (1990), "Developmental management", England, Basil Blackwell. Lipshitz,
R., Popper, M. & Ox, S. (1996), "Building Learning Organizations: The
design and implementation of organizational learning mechanisms", Journal
of Applied Behavioral Science, 32(3), pp.292-305.
Longworth,
N. (1999), "Making lifelong learning work: Learning cities for a learning
century", London: Kogan Page.
Luthans,
D., Rubach, J., & Marsnik (1995), "Going Beyond Total Quality: The
Characteristics, Techniques, and Measures of Learning Organization", The
International Journal of Organizational Analysis, 3(1), pp. 24-44.
Margolin,
J. B, (1991), "Foundation Fundamentals", New York：The Foundation Center, Marquardt J. M., (1996),
" Building the learning organization: a system approach to quantum
improvement and global success", McGraw-Hill Company
Marquardt,
M. J., & Reynolds, A, (1994), "The Global Learning Organization",
N.Y.: IRWIN.
Marsick
V, (1987), "Learning in the workplace".
Croom
Helm, Landon, Massarik, F. (1990), "Chaos and Change: Examining the
Aesthetics of Organization Development", in Fred Massarik (eds), Advances
in Organization Development, NJ
Maxwell,
Hall P. D. (1987), "A Historical Overview of the Private Nonprofit
Sector", In Powel, W.W. (ed.). The Nonprofit Sector: A Research Handbook.
New Haven: Yale University Press.
Meyers,
D. L. & Hook, J. (1994), "Harmonizing control and accountability with
empowerment and innovation", International Journal of empowerment Auditing,
21(1), pp. 10-12.
Mike
Hudson (1999), "Managing Without Profit: The Art of Managing Third-sector
Organizations", New York: Penguin Books.
Morgan,
G., (1986), "Images of Organization", New York: Sage.
Nunnally,
J. C. (1978), "Psychometric Theory", N.Y.: McGraw-Hill.
O'Neil,
J. (1995), "Four lenses through which to view a learning
organization", ASTD.
Pareek,
U. (1988), "Organizational Learning Diagnostics (OLD): Assessing and
Developing Organizational Learning", in the 1988 Annual: Developing Human
Resources, San Diego: Pfeiffer & CO.
Pedler
M. ,Boydell T. & Burgoyne. J., (1989), "Toward the learning
company", Management Education and Development, pp1-8
Pedler,
M., Burgoyne, J. & Boydell, T. (1991), "The Learning Company: A
Strategy for Sustainable Development", London: McGraw-Hill.
Peter
M. Senge (1990), "The Fifth Discipline: The Art and Practice of The
Learning Organization", N.Y., Currency and Doubleday.
Peter
M. Senge (1990), "The Leader's new work: Building learning
organization", Sloan Management Revoew, Fall pp7-23
Rao,
M. V. Hayagreeva & William A. P. (1989), "Knowledge and Interests in
Organizational Studies: A Conflict of Interpretations.", Organization
Studies, Vol.10.
Redding,
J. (1997), "Hardwiring the Learning Organization", Training &
Development, August, pp.61-67.
Richard,
K. & Ian G (1998), "The management of none", translation by Liau
Ching-yen, Taipei,：Chen-hsin
published.
Robbins,
S. P., (1987), "Organization Theory: Structure Design and
Applications", New York: Prentice Hall, Inc.
Salamon
, L. M(1992), "America's Nonprofit Sector：A
Prime Foundations", New York：The
Foundation Center.
Salamon
, L. M. , (1990), "The Nonprofit Sector and Government：The American
Experience in Theory and Practice", in Anheier, H. K. and Seibel W.
The Third
Sector：Comparative Studies of Nonprofit Organizations.
N.Y..
Schein,
E. H. (1992), "Organizational Culture and Leadership", San- Francisco
Jossey Bass.
Schein,
E. H., (1993), "How can organization learn faster? The challenge of
entering the green room", Slonan Management Review, Winter, pp85-92
Schram,
Vicki R (1985), "Motivating Volunteers How the Rewards of Unpaid work Can
Meet People's Needs", in Moore, Larry F.(ed.), Vancouver Volunteer
Publication, Secondary School Principals, NASSP Bulletin: Reston.
Selva
Abraham (1997), "Exploratory Action Research for Manager Development",
ALARPM Inc. and Gibaran Action Research management Institute Pty Ltd published.
Sharp,
E. B., (1980), "Toward a New Understanding of Urban Services and Citizen
Participation：The
Co-production Concept". Midwest Review of Public Administration, Vol. 14,
No. 2, June.
Slater,
S. F., & Narver, J. C. (1995), "Market Orientation and the Learning
Organization", Journal of Marketing, 59(3), pp.63-74.
Smith,
Bucklin & Associates (1994), "The Complete Guide to Nonprofit
Management", New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Sohal,
A. & Morrison, M. (1995), "Is there a link between total quality
management and learning organizations?", TQM Magazine, 7(3), pp. 41-44.
Stata
R. (1989), "Organizational learning-The key to management innovation",
Sloan Management Review, Spring, pp63-74
Stenzel,
A. K. and Feeney, H. M. (1968), "Volunteer Training and Development",
New York: Seabury Press
Swieringa,
J. & Wierdsma, A. (1992), "Becoming a Learning Organization: Beyond the
Learning Curve", MA: Addison-Wesley.
Tidd,
J., Bessant, J. & Pavitt, K. (1997), "Managing innovation-Integrating
Technological", Market and Organizational Change, England: John Wiley &
Sons Ltd.
Tobin,
D. R. (1993), "Re-educating the Corporation: Foundations for the Learning
Organization", VT, Oliver Wight.
Tylor,
S. J. & R. Bodan, (1984), "Introduction to qualitative research method:
The search for meanings", New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Watkins,
K. E. & Marsick, V. J. (1993), "Sculpting the learning
organization", San Francisco, Jossey Bass.
Thomas
Wolf, (1999), "Managing a Non-profit Organization in the Twenty-first
Century", New York, Simon & Schuster Inc., Thompson, J. D.,
Organizations in Action, New York, McGraw-Hill, 1967.
Thurbin,
P. J. (1994), "Implementing the Learning Organization: The 17-day Learning
Program", London, Pitman.
Walter
de Gruyter, Bennett, J. K. & O'Brine, M. J. (1994), "The Building
Blocks of The Learning Organization", Training, 31(6), pp. 41-49.
Walter
de Gruyter , Salamon Lester M (1987), "Partners in Public Services: The
Scope and Theory of Government Nonprofit Relations", In Powel , W.W. (ed.).
The Nonprofit Sector, A Research Handbook, New Haven, Yale University Press.
Hall P. D. (1987)
"A Historical Overview of the Private Nonprofit Sector. In Powel",
W.W. (ed.). The Nonprofit Sector: A Research Handbook, New Haven: Yale
University Press.
Hedlund
(1994), "A model of knowledge management and the N-Form Corporation",
Henry
Hansman (1987), "The Role of Nonprofit Enterprise", Yale Law Journal,
89, p.838.
Houle,
C. O. (1989), "Governing Boards: Their nature and nurture", San
Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.
Howells,
Jeremy (1996), "Tacit knowledge, Innovation and Technology Transfer",
Technology Analysis & Strategic Management, vol.8, No.2.
Huber,
G.P. (1991), “Organizational
learning: the contributing processes and the literatures”,
Organizational Science, Vol. 2, pp. 88-115.
Ilsley,
P.J. (1990), "Enhancing the volunteer experience", Jossey-Bass
publishers, San Francisco.
Jacobson,
A. (1990), "Volunteer management handbook for effective development of
volunteer programs", Kansas City, Missouri: Ann Jacobson and Associates.
Jacobson,
A. (1993), "Principles of good practice for the field of
volunteerism", Kansas City, Missouri: Ann Jacboson and Associates.
James
C. Fisher and Kathleen M. Cole (1993), "leadership and management of
volunteer programs-a guide for volunteer administrators", Jossey-Bass
publishers, San Francisco.
Jeanne,
H. Bradner (1999), "Director, knowing which things should be known:
directorate operational manual ", Translation by Kuei Ya-wun and Tsai
In-gin, Taipei, Wu-kuan art management company Ltd.
Jeffer
L. Brudney (1990), "Fostering volunteer program in the public sector",
Jossey-Bass publishers..
John
M. Bryson and Farnum K. Alston (1996), "Creating and implementing your
strategic plan-A workbook for public and nonprofit organizations",
Jossey-Bass publishers, San Francisco.
John
R. Schermerhorn, JR., James G. Hunt and Richard N. Osborn (1997),
"Organizational Behavior", John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Karsten,
S. (1999), “Neoliberal
education reform in The Netherlands”, Comparative Education, Vol. 35 No. 3,
pp. 303-17.
Katheryn,
Wiedman, Heidrich (1990), "Working with volunteers in employee Services and
recreation programs", Sagamor publishing, Inc.
Kennedy,
L. W. (1991), "Quality management in the nonprofit world", San
Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.
Kerka,
S. (1995), The Learning Organization. Myths and Realities, Eric Clearinghouse.
Kolb,
D.A. (1984), Experimental Learning, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.</PLOC>
Leithwood,
K. (1994), “Leadership
for school restructuring”, Educational Administration Quarterly,
Vol. 30, pp. 498-518.
Leithwood,
K. and Aitken, R. (1995), Making Schools Smart, Corwin Press, Thousand Oaks, CA</PLOC>.
Leithwood,
K. and Louis, K. (Eds) (1998), Organizational Learning in Schools, Swets &
Zeitlinger, Lisse</PLOC>.
Leithwood,
K., Leonard, L. and Sharrat, L. (1998), “Conditions
fostering organizational learning in schools”, Educational Administration Quarterly,
Vol.34 No. 3, pp. 243-76.
Leslie
H. Garner, Jr. (1989), "Leadership in human services-how to articulate and
implement a vision to achieve results", Jossey-Bass publishers, San
Francisco, London.
Levinthal,
D.A. (1991), “Organizational
adaptation and environmental selection: interrelated processes of change”,
in Cohen, M.D. and Sproull, L.S. (1995), Organizational Learning, Sage, Thousand
Oaks, CA</PLOC>,
pp.195-220.
Levitt, T. (1983),
"The Globalization of markets", Harvard Business Review, May/ June.
Li lea-mon (1997),
" The declaring of USA foundation relative law and regulation",
Taipei, National political university the speech took place by NPO research
room.
Little,
J. (1990), “The
persistence of privacy: autonomy and initiative in teachers’
professional relations”,
Teacher College Record, Vol. 91, pp 509-36.
Louis,
K.S. (1994), “Beyond
‘managed
change’:
rethinking how schools improve”, School Effectiveness and School
Improvement, Vol. 5, pp. 2-24.
Macduff,
N. (1980), "Episodic volunteering, Reality for the future", Voluntary
Action Leadership.
Marcel
Dekker, Galagan, P. A. (1992), "On Being a Beginner", Training &
Development, 46(11), pp.30-38.
March,
J.G., Sproull, L.S. and Tamuz, M. (1995), “Learning
from samples of one or fewer”,
in Cohen, M.D. and Sproull, L.S. (Eds), Organizational Learning, Sage, Thousand
Oaks, CA</PLOC>.
Margolin, J. B.
(1991), "Foundation fundamentals", N.Y., The Foundation Center.
McCurley,
S. (1991), "Recruiting volunteers for difficult or long-term
assignments", Downers Grove, Illinois: Heritage Arts Publishing Division of
VM Systems.
McCurley,
S., & Lynch, R. (1989), "Essential volunteer management", Downers
Grove, Illinois: VM Systems and Heritage Arts Publishing.
M.D.
, Sproull, L.S. (1995), "Organizational Learning", Sage, Thousand
Oaks, CA.</PLOC>
Milkovich,
G. T., & Boudreau, J. W. (1991), "Human resource management" (6th
ed.), Homewood, Illinois: IRWIN.
Mintzberg,
H. (1983), Structure in Fives, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ</PLOC>.
Neil,
J. (1995), “On
schools as learning organizations: a conversation with Peter Senge”,
Educational Leadership, April, pp. 20-3.
Morten
T. Hansen, Nitin Nohria and Thomas Tierney (1999), "What's your strategy
for managing knowledge? ", Harvard Business Review.
Nelson,
R.R. and S.G.Winter (1982), "An Evolutionary Theory of Economics
Change", Cambridge. MA: Blkap Press.
Nonaka,
I. And Takeuchi, H. (1995), "The Knowledge-Creating Company", Oxford
Novaratnma,
K. K. (1986), "Volunteers training Volunteers: A model for human service
organizations", The Journal of Volunteer Administration.
Nutt.
P. C., & Backoff, R. W. (1992), "Strategic management of public and
third sector organizations: A handbook for leader", San Francisco:
Jossey-Bass Publishers.
O'Connell,
B. (1988), "Recruiting, encouraging, and evaluating the chief staff
officer", Nonprofit management Series. Washington, D. C.: Independent
Ohmae,
R. (1990), "The Borderless World: Power and Strategy in the Interlinked
Economy", USA: Harper.
Parsons,
T. (1960), "Structure and Process in Modern Societies", New York: The
Free Press.
Patton,
M. (1990), "Qualitative evaluation and research methods (2nd. ed)",
Thomas, H. Davenport & Laurence, Prusak (1999), Working Knowledge.
Paul
B. Firstenberg (1996), "The 21st century nonprofit-Remaking the
organization in the Post-Government Era", The foundation center.
Peter Checkland
(2000), "Systems thinking, Systems Practice: Soft system Methodology: a
30-year retrospective", JOHN WILEY & SONS, LTD
Peter Drucker
(1994), "The management way of NPO", Taipei, Far-streams publishing
house.
Philip,
Kotler and Alan, R. Andreasen (1996), "Strategic management for nonprofit
organizations", Prentice Hall, Inc.
Philip
Kotler and Alan R. Andreasen (1996), "Strategic marketing for nonprofit
organizations", Prentice Hall, Inc.
Planyi,
M. (1967), "The Tacit Dimension", Garden City. NY: Doubleday Press.
R.
Henry Migliore, Robert E. Stevens, David L. Loudon, Stan Williamson
(1995), "Strategic Planning for not-for-profit organizations",
The Haworth Press, Inc.
Rait,
E. (1995), “Against
the current; organizational learning in schools”,
in Bacharach, S.B. and Mundell, B. (Eds), Images of Schools, Corwin Press,
Thousand Oaks, CA.</PLOC>
Richard
Lynch (1993), "Lead! How public and nonprofit managers can bring out the
best in themselves and their organizations", Jossey-Bass publishers, San
Francisco.
Robert
D. Herman and Richard Heimovics (1991), "Executive leadership in nonprofit
organizations-new strategies for shaping executive-board dynamics",
Jossey-Bass publishers, San Francisco, Oxford.
Roger
A. Lohman (1992), "The commons-new perspectives on nonprofit organizations
and voluntary action", Jossey-Bass publishers, San Francisco.
Rozenholz,
S. (1989), "Teachers's Workplace: The Social Organization of Schools",
Longman, New York, NY</PLOC>.
S.
J. & Noyes, K. K. (1990.), "By the People：A
History of Americans as Volunteers (revised ed.)", San Francisco：Jossey - Bass Publishers.
Salamon, L. M.
(1992), "America's Nonprofit Sector: A Prime Foundations. New York":
The Foundation Center.
Salamon,
U.M. (1992), "America's nonprofit sector: A prime", New York: The
Foundation Center.
Salamon,
L.M. & Anheior, H. K. (1992), "In search of the nonprofit sector: The
question of definitions Voluntary", 3(2), p. 125-151.
Schram, Vicki R.
(1985), "Motivating Volunteers How the Rewards of Unpaid work Can Meet
Peoples Needs", In Moore, Larry F. (ed.), Vancouver Volunteer Publication.
Sector.
Senge,
P.M. (1990), The Fifth Discipline: The Art and Practice of the Learning
Organization, Doubleday, New York, NY</PLOC>.
Sitkin,
S.B. (1995), "Learning through failure", in Cohen.
Sjoerd
Karsten, Eva Voncken, Marjon Voorthuis (2000), "Dutch primary schools and
the concept of the learning organization", The Learning Organization, Vol.
7 Issue 3 ISSN 0969-6474
Stenzel , A. K. and
Feeney , H. M.(1968), "Volunteer Training and Development. New York":
Seabury Press.
Stephen
Anderson and Michael Lauderdale (1986), "Developing and management
volunteer programs-A guide for social service agencies", Charles, C. Thomas
Publisher, Springfield Illinois. USA
Stephen
P. Osborne (1996), "Managing in the voluntary sector-A handbook for
managers in charitable and nonprofit organizations", International Thomson
Business press.
Steven
Rathgeb Smith and Michael Lipsky (1993), "Nonprofit for hire-The Welfare
state in the age of contracting", Strategic Management Journal,
73-90.88-115., Harvard University Press.
Susan
J.Elliss (1986), "From the top down-the executive role in volunteer program
success", Energize, Inc.
Swieringa,
J. and Wierdsma, A.F.M. (1992), "Becoming a Learning Organization: Beyond
the Learning Curve", Addison-Wesley, Wokingham</PLOC>.
The USA Tzu Chi
wrold magazine (1996~2000), Tzu chi foundation headquarters, Hualien
Thomas
Wolf (1999), "Managing a nonprofit organization in the twenty-first
century", Simon & Schuster Inc.
Tsai han-hsien
(1990), "The theory and practice of volunteer service ", Taipei, the
community R&D and training center of ROC.
Tzu Chi annals
(1966~1990), Tzu chi foundation headquarters, Hualien
Tzu Chi annals
(1991), Tzu chi foundation headquarters, Hualien
Tzu Chi annals
(1992), Tzu chi foundation headquarters, Hualien
Tzu Chi annals
(1993), Tzu chi foundation headquarters, Hualien
Tzu Chi annals
(1994), Tzu chi foundation headquarters, Hualien
Tzu Chi annals
(1995), Tzu chi foundation headquarters, Hualien
Tzu Chi annals
(1996), Tzu chi foundation headquarters, Hualien
Tzu Chi annals
(1997), Tzu chi foundation headquarters, Hualien
Tzu Chi annals
(1998), Tzu chi foundation headquarters, Hualien
Tzu Chi annals
(1999), Tzu chi foundation headquarters, Hualien
Tzu Chi annals
(2000), Tzu chi foundation headquarters, Hualien
Tzu Chi English
Quarterly magazine (1996~2000), Tzu chi foundation headquarters, Hualien
Tzu Chi Newspaper
(1996~2001), Tzu chi foundation headquarters, Hualien
Tzu Chi Quarterly
magazine in USA (1996~2000), Tzu chi foundation headquarters, Hualien
Tzu Chi Rhythms
Monthly magazine (1998~2000), Tzu chi foundation headquarters, Hualien
Unterman,
I., & Davis, R. H. (1984), "Strategic management of Not-for-profit
organizations", New York: Prager Publishers.
Utterback,
J. & Heyman, S. R. (1984), "An examination of methods in the evaluation
of volunteer program", Evaluation and Program Planning, 7(3), 229-235.
Vandenberghe,
R. (ed.) (1993), "School en vernieuwing: en kans tot professional groei en
school verbetering", Centrum voor Onderwijsbeleid en vernieuwing, Leuven.</PLOC>
Watkins,
K.E. and Marsick, V.J. (1996), Creating the Learning Organization, ASTD,
Alexandria</PLOC>.
Water,
M. (1995), "Globalization", London: Routledge, p3.
Weaver,
R. K. (1989), "The Changing World of Think Tanks", Political Science
& Politics, September
Weick,
K. E. & Roberts, K. H. (1993), "Collective mind in organizations:
Heedful interrelating on flight decks", Administrative Science Quarterly,
38(3), pp.357-381.
Weisbrod,
Burton A. (1989), "The Nonprofit Economy", Cambridge, MA: Harvard
University Press.
Weisbrod,
Burton A. (1986), "Toward of the Voluntary Nonprofit Sector in a Three -
Sector Economy", in Rose-Ackerman S. (ed.). The Economic of Nonprofit
Institutions, New York: Oxford University Press.
West-Burnham,
J. (1992), "Managing Quality in Schools", Longman, Harlow</PLOC>.
Whitaker,
G. P., (1980), "Co-production: Citizen Participation in Service
Delivery", Public Administration Review, May/ June.
Whitty,
G., Power, S. and Halpin, D. (1998), "Devolution and Choice in
Education", Open University Press, Buckingham/Philadelphia</PLOC>.
Wick,
C. W. & Leon, L. S. (1995), "From ideas to action: Creating a learning
organization", Human Resource Management, 34(2), pp. 299-311.
Winter,
S. G. (1987), "Knowledge and Competence as Strategic Assets",
Cambridge. MA: Ballinger.
Wishart,
N. A., Elam, J. & Robey, D. (1996), "Redrawing the Portrait of a
Learning Organization: Inside Knight-Ridder Inc", Academy of Management
Executive, 10(1), pp. 7-20.
Wolf,
T. (1990), "Managing A Nonprofit Organization", N.Y.：Simon & Shuster.
Wolf
T. (1990), "Managing A Nonprofit Organization. N.Y.": Simon &
Shuster.
Wolf.
T. (1990), "Managing a nonprofit organization", New York:
Prentice-Hall Press.
Young,
D. R. (1990), "Compensation in the nonprofit sector: Personnel and human
resource development", In J. Muehrcke (Ed.), Madison, Wisconsin: The
Society for Nonprofit organizations, pp.53-54.
Young,
D. R. (1993b), "The first three years of NML: Central issues in the
management of nonprofit organization", Nonprofit Management &
Leadership, 4(1), 3-22.