Subject: The Relationship between Language Learning Belief and Foreign Language Anxiety and Learning Strategies
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The Relationship between Language Learning Belief and Foreign Language Anxiety and Learning Strategies

東海大學教育研究所 廖憲忠

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Chapter I. Introduction

This chapter furnishes the background motivation and of studies on beliefs about language learning, discussing concepts of beliefs about language learning including their characteristics, development, significance, and definitions.

1.1 Background & Motivation

In Taiwan, English as a Foreign Language is a compulsory course from elementary schools to universities. Teachers or instructors always concentrate on vocabulary, grammar, and translation more than listening and speaking trainings. Their purposes are to assist students either in attending high schools or obtaining better occupations. However, after learning English for several years, most of Taiwan’s college students are still not proficient in English; hence, how to improve foreign language learners to acquire the target language successfully has become the concern of language researchers, educators, and parents.

Over the past three decades, numerous language researchers and educators have been investigating learner variables like, beliefs, strategies, and anxiety in the field of foreign language acquisitions (Wang, 2007). According to Horwitz (1988), she highlights that learners who believe that foreign language learning is made up of vocabulary, grammar, or translation are not likely to choose the kinds of comprehensive strategies associated with successful language learners. Moreover, it is extremely critical to understand learners’ foreign beliefs. If teachers comprehend learners’ beliefs better, they can educate them more effectively during foreign language classrooms. Furthermore, learners’ beliefs about how language operates and how it is learned may mediate the variety and flexibility of the language learning strategies (Abraham & Vann, 1987). Hong (2006) stresses that some research about learners’ beliefs about foreign language learning may be one of the most significant sources of language anxiety and foreign language learners’ beliefs about language learning influence learning behaviors, strategies, and motivation tremendously.

1.2 Characteristics of Beliefs about Language Learning

Numerous scholars have described that beliefs about language learning are complicatedly related constructs that are relational and context specific. Wenden (1998) argues metacognitive knowledge or beliefs about language learning as “a system of related ideas” that are “a part of a learner’s store of acquired knowledge” (p.517). Mori (1999) states that beliefs about language learning consist of several independent constructs, finding proposed belief dimensions: (1) perception of the difficulty, (2) the effectiveness of approaches to or strategies for language learning, (3) and the source of linguistic knowledge were not correlated to each other or only correlated at the low level. Similarly, Horwitz (1999) proposes that several studies on beliefs about language learning, finding beliefs about language learning were relational, depending on learning circumstances and the nature of the target language. Peacock (1999) found that inconsistency in beliefs about language learning may result from the context that the respondents based on their responses. Furthermore, beliefs about language learning are independent constructs that consist of multiple dimensions (Horwitz, 1999). These beliefs seem to be context specific and may vary depending on the amount of learning experience learners have received.

1.3 Development of Learner Beliefs about Language Learning

Learner beliefs about language learning may affect their language learning performance tremendously. Wenden (1986) argues that learner beliefs about language learning include the natural or systematic way like “language aptitude, self-concept, and strategies. Horwitz (1988) finds that learners sometimes hold very unrealistic beliefs concerning language learning, which may contribute to learner anxiety. According to Young (1991), anxiety is created “when beliefs and reality clash” (p. 428). In addition, erroneous beliefs about language learning may bring less effective strategies (Horwitz, 1988). Kunt (1997) concludes that students can number their beliefs about language learning. More significantly, they describe learning strategies consistent with these beliefs. Peacock (1999) finds that mismatched learner beliefs influence EFL proficiency negatively.

1.4 Significance of Beliefs about Language Learning

Some researchers propose that beliefs about language learning are advantageous to learners; whereas others argue that some beliefs about language learning can contribute to negative effects on language learning. Mantle-Bromley (1995) agrees that that learners who have positive attitudes and realistic language-related beliefs more tend to behave in a more productive way in learning than those who have negative attitudes and mistaken beliefs.

1.5 Definitions of Terms

The following terms are applied to this study:

1. 5. 1 Definitions of Beliefs about Language Learning

According to the pioneer, Horwitz (1985) emphasizes that beliefs about language learning refer to learners’ perceived ideas. Beliefs about language learning refer to opinions or views held by people on language learning. Horwitz (1988) divides beliefs about language learning into five major categories: (1) Foreign language aptitude, (2) Difficulty of language learning, (3) Nature of language learning, (4) Learning and communication strategies, and (5) Motivations and expectations.

Also, Wenden (1986) examines learner beliefs about second language learning and interviews a group of adult ESL learners in advanced level English classes in the U.S.A., dividing their responses into five categories: (1) designating (language), (2) diagnosing (language proficiency), (3) evaluating (outcome of strategies), (4) self-analyzing (personal factors), and (5) theorizing (how best to approach language learning). Sakui and Gaies (1999) and Schommer (1990) stress mounting evidence has been gathered to conclude that beliefs about language learning play a crucial in learning achievements and experiences. Furthermore, Horwitz (1999) claims that it is cardinal to understand learner beliefs on account of the practical implications that they have in learner strategies and planning appropriate language instruction.

1. 5. 2 Definitions of Language Learning Strategies

Oxford (1990) stresses that language learning strategies are “operations employed by the learner to support the acquisition, storage, retrieval, and use of information,” expanding that “learning strategies are specific actions taken by the learner to make learning easier, faster, more enjoyable, more self-directed, more effective, and more transferable to new situations” (p. 8). Besides, Oxford (1990) argues that learning strategies can be classified into six categories: memory, cognitive, comprehension, metacognitive, affective, and social strategies.

1. 5. 3 Definitions of Language Anxiety

Horwitz (1986) argues simply that language anxiety as a unique experience while learning the target language or as a manifestation of other general types of anxiety. Gardner and MacIntyre (1993) stresses language anxiety as the apprehension experienced when conditions need the use of a second language with which the individual is not fully proficient. In addition, Pappamihiel (2002) explains that language anxiety is as a social anxiety associated with interactions.

Chapter II. Literature Review

Chapter II is divided into three parts. To begin with, relevant literature concerning Beliefs about Language Learning is discussed, and the second part is to explore the issues concerning Language Learning Strategies. Lastly, relevant literature concentrates on the relationship between Learners’ Beliefs and Language Anxiety.

2.1 Studies on Beliefs about Language Learning

Initially, Wenden (1998) stress that insights about learners’ beliefs may assist in promoting the use of effective language learning strategies, claiming that learners’ beliefs may be more influential to learners’ use of language learning strategies than strategy training. Besides, Benson and Lor (1999) argue that understanding about learners’ beliefs supports to adjust learners’ attitude and behaviors. Victori and Lockhart (1995) find that after having some counseling sessions to refine their beliefs about language learning that are counterproductive to autonomy, learners became more directed in their own learning. In a nutshell, some scholars recommend teachers help refine students’ beliefs while the others only suggest teachers raise students’ awareness about their beliefs.

2.2 Empirical Studies on Beliefs about Language Learning

In order to identify similarities and differences across cultural groups, Horwitz (1999) investigates eight studies such as American learners of French, Spanish, German, and Japanese, US university instructor of French, and Korean, Taiwanese, and Turkish heritage English as a foreign language English students and utilizes Beliefs About Language Learning Inventory (BALLI).

Horwitz (1999) founds that the heritage students of Asia and Turkey believe that if they would like to obtain occupations, they must learn more vocabulary because they are connected. Moreover, all groups, except the American instructors of French, accept that precise pronunciation is extremely significant to learn a language. It is quite strange about the guessing belief because the majority of EFL students have more willingness to guess than do American students. However, the result reveals that most of the EFL students do not agree that studying the grammar rules is critical while learning a foreign language.

Yang (1999) investigates the relationship between college EFL students’ beliefs about language learning and the use of their learning strategies. 505 university students in Taiwan participated in the study. Yang also conducts the English Learning Questionnaire, designed by Horwitz’s (1987) BALLI inventory and Oxford’s (1990) the Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL). Then, he designs some  questions, translates the questionnaire into Chinese. According to Yang (1999), factor analysis on BALLI items identified four factors that constituted the learners’ beliefs about language learning:

i. self-efficacy and expectation about learning English,

ii. perceived value and nature of learning spoken English,

iii. beliefs about foreign language aptitude, and

iv. beliefs about formal structural studies. The findings are generally in line with the results that Horwitz (1987) had gained in her study.

Peacock (1999 ) investigates beliefs about language learning of university EFL students (1999) and pre-service EFL teachers in Hong Kong (2001), finding  significant relationships between English proficiency and beliefs about the role of grammar and vocabulary.

The data show that high proficient learners are likely to disagree that learning vocabulary and grammar is to learn English while low proficient students agree more.

To examine 20 adult Vietnamese ESL learner beliefs about language learning, Bernat (2004) utilizes BALLI. The findings reveal that all of respondents (100%) strongly agreed that having a better English proficiency is likely to obtain greater occupations. Most of them (80%) support the significant of precise pronunciations. Only 55% learners agree the statement it is indispensable to comprehend English speaking cultures to speak English.

Mantle-Bromley (1995) adopts BALLI to investigate 257 middle school students’ beliefs about learning French and Spanish in Kansas City, Kansas. Both students and three teachers from three different middle schools outside Kansas City partake in the study. The researcher summaries that many students have misconceptions about their second language learning. 36% of participants believe that they can speak a second language well in two years or less. Furthermore, 31% of them believe that it is difficult to learn language if they lack for intelligence.

Also, 44% of the participants believe that language learning means learning new vocabulary, while 34% of participants believe that language learning is to learn translation from English. In addition, 36% of them disagree that language learning is related to cultural knowledge.

In order to investigate learner beliefs about language learning, Diab (2000) modifies a version of the BALLI distributed to 284 Lebanese university students learning English and French as foreign languages at three universities in Lebanon. Factor analyses identify four categories of beliefs for each language group. Beliefs held by English language students are:

i.         integrative motivation,

ii.       difficulty of speaking and learning English,

iii.      the importance of accuracy in speaking English, and

iv.     the importance of English in Lebanon.

Beliefs held by French language students are:

i.         motivation / confidence in speaking French,

ii.       the nature of learning French,

iii.      the importance of French in Lebanon, and

iv.     the importance of accuracy in speaking French.

The study reveals several similarities and differences in the beliefs of the two groups. The researcher notes that the differences observed in a comparison of the students’ beliefs about learning English and their beliefs about learning French may be a result of variation in a particular group’s beliefs about learning a different target language.

Oh (1996) conducts a study to investigate the beliefs held by American students of Japanese, examining the relationship between beliefs about foreign language learning and language anxiety. A factor analysis shows four beliefs concerning Japanese learning:

i.         motivation /confidence in speaking Japanese,

ii.       beliefs about importance of formal learning,

iii.      foreign language aptitude, and

iv.     beliefs about the importance of correctness.

The study reveals that some beliefs are shared by language learners in spite of   the target language they are studying. However, learners’ beliefs about the difficulty of language learning and motivation seem to depend on the specific target language they were studying. The author summaries that a perception of target language difficulty in general seems to affect language learners’ confidence levels and if  students would underestimate or overestimate how long it takes them to become fluent in a foreign language.

2.3 Studies on Beliefs and Learning Strategies

The relationship between beliefs and the use of language learning strategies is a popular study on beliefs about language learning. Early findings about the different use of learning strategies of successful and unsuccessful EFL learners who reported different perceptions about language learning, as revealed in Abraham and Vann (1987) might have brought the attention of researchers in the field to studies on learners’ use of learning strategies. Numerous studies have been conducted in the past two decades in both ESL and EFL contexts and yielded consistent findings that there are relationships between beliefs about language learning and learners’ use of language learning strategies. Wenden (1987) studies differences in beliefs and strategy use of different groups of learners, examining beliefs and strategies of three groups of learners: function-based, rule-based, and affective-based learners using interviews. She found that the three groups of learners, who held different beliefs about language learning, reported using different learning strategies.

2.4 The Relationship between Learners’ Beliefs and Language Strategies

Horwtiz (1987) claims that research on beliefs about language learning has proved that learners’ beliefs may have the potential to influence both their experiences and actions as language learners; accordingly, a variety of links among beliefs, motivation, and strategy use have been established. Learners’ beliefs might influence the variety and flexibility of their strategy use tremendously (Abraham & Vann, 1987). The result showed that one of the most important differences between a successful and an unsuccessful learner in the use of language strategies is their beliefs about how language operates and how it is learned, which guides the approach they use when encountering language learning tasks (Abraham & Vann, 1987).

Moreover, Fan (1999) investigated the relationship between beliefs about language learning and the use of language strategies of Hong Kong students. The resulted showed that these two variables are divided into five categories: attribution, management, form-focus, meaning-focus, and L1-reliant beliefs /strategies. Results of correlation analysis also confirmed a consistent pattern as previous researches. All the categories of beliefs related positively and significantly to the corresponding categories of strategies.

Chiang and Liao (2004) conducted a study examining the relationship between junior college students’ language learning beliefs and their use of strategies. Meanwhile, Liu (2004) investigated a belief versus strategy study among a sample of senior high school students, utilizing a questionnaire that was composed of BALLI and SILL. The result of correlation analysis once confirmed the positive correlation between students’ beliefs about language learning and their use of language strategies.

2.5 Studies on Beliefs and Language Anxiety

Researchers perceive that some beliefs which students bring to class may bring forth discomfort in performing language learning tasks, which means foreign language anxiety. Beliefs about the difficulty of language learning were found in two studies (Horwitz, 1989) to associate with foreign language anxiety (the relationship found in Horwitz was only approaching significance p = .067). The two studies were conducted in different learning contexts. She found that high anxiety learners were found to report beliefs that the target language they were pursuing was difficult. In contrast, low anxiety learners tended to view the target language as being easy.

2.6 Relationship between Beliefs about Language Learning and Foreign Language Anxiety

Young (1991) claims that learner beliefs about language learning have been thought as one of the major sources of foreign language learning anxiety.

Foss and Reitzel (1988) stress that negative perception significantly affects language learner’s self-esteem and breaks any chance of achieving success in language learning while coping with anxiety responses of language learners.

MacIntyre, Noles, and Clement (1997) investigated the accuracy of individuals’ self-perceptions of competence in learning a language and how language anxiety can bias these assessments. The results showed that L2 language anxiety, perceived L2 competence, and actual L2 competence inter-correlated with each other and that language anxiety correlated negatively with both actual and perceived proficiency in L2. Besides, according to the research of Onwuegbuzie, Bailey, and Daley (1999), they found that three aspects of self-perception were significantly related to foreign language anxiety. These factors were students’ expectation of their overall achievement in foreign language courses, perceived self-worth, and perceived scholastic competence.

2.7 Conclusion

While English teaching is burgeoning in Taiwan, language learning beliefs are an area where little work has been done, especially focusing on the students who attend continuous education program. Numerous scholars mention that students come to classes with many preconceived ideas about language learning. Horwitz (1987) claims that erroneous beliefs about language learning may contribute to less effective language learning strategies. Thus, teachers’ knowledge of their students’ listening comprehension skills becomes especially critical.

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